[Development of Plant Metabolomics and Medicinal Plant Genomics].

A variety of chemicals produced by plants, often referred to as 'phytochemicals', have been used as medicines, food, fuels and industrial raw materials. Recent advances in the study of genomics and metabolomics in plant science have accelerated our understanding of the mechanisms, regulation and evolution of the biosynthesis of specialized plant products. We can now address such questions as how the metabolomic diversity of plants is originated at the levels of genome, and how we should apply this knowledge to drug discovery, industry and agriculture. Our research group has focused on metabolomics-based functional genomics over the last 15 years and we have developed a new research area called 'Phytochemical Genomics'. In this review, the development of a research platform for plant metabolomics is discussed first, to provide a better understanding of the chemical diversity of plants. Then, representative applications of metabolomics to functional genomics in a model plant, Arabidopsis thaliana, are described. The extension of integrated multi-omics analyses to non-model specialized plants, e.g., medicinal plants, is presented, including the identification of novel genes, metabolites and networks for the biosynthesis of flavonoids, alkaloids, sulfur-containing metabolites and terpenoids. Further, functional genomics studies on a variety of medicinal plants is presented. I also discuss future trends in pharmacognosy and related sciences.

Ethnophytotechnology: Harnessing the Power of Ethnobotany with Biotechnology.

Ethnobotany (the scientific study of traditional plant knowledge) has aided the discovery of important medicines. However, as single-molecule drugs or synergistic mixtures, these remedies have faced obstacles in production and analysis. Now, advances in bioreactor technology, metabolic engineering, and analytical instrumentation are improving the production, manipulation, and scientific understanding of such remedies.

Cannabis cultivation: Methodological issues for obtaining medical-grade product.

As studies continue to reveal favorable findings for the use of cannabidiol in the management of childhood epilepsy syndromes and other disorders, best practices for the large-scale production of Cannabis are needed for timely product development and research purposes. The processes of two institutions with extensive experience in producing large-scale cannabidiol chemotype Cannabis crops-GW Pharmaceuticals and the University of Mississippi-are described, including breeding, indoor and outdoor growing, harvesting, and extraction methods. Such practices have yielded desirable outcomes in Cannabis breeding and production: GW Pharmaceuticals has a collection of chemotypes dominant in any one of eight cannabinoids, two of which-cannabidiol and cannabidivarin-are supporting epilepsy clinical trial research, whereas in addition to a germplasm bank of high-THC, high-CBD, and intermediate type cannabis varieties, the team at University of Mississippi has established an in vitro propagation protocol for cannabis with no detectable variations in morphologic, physiologic, biochemical, and genetic profiles as compared to the mother plants. Improvements in phytocannabinoid yields and growing efficiency are expected as research continues at these institutions. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled "Cannabinoids and Epilepsy".

Reverse Pharmacognosy and Reverse Pharmacology; Two Closely Related Approaches for Drug Discovery Development.

Pharmacognosy is a science, which study natural products as a source of new drug leads and effective drug development. Rational and economic search for novel lead structures could maximize the speed of drug discovery by using powerful high technology methods. Reverse pharmacognosy, a complementary to pharmacognosy, couples the high throughput screening (HTS), virtual screening and databases along with the knowledge of traditional medicines. These strategies lead to identification of numerous in vitro active and selective hits enhancing the speed of drug discovery from natural sources. Besides, reverse pharmacology is a target base drug discovery approach; in the first step, a hypothesis is made that the alteration of specific protein activity will produce beneficial curative effects. Both, reverse pharmacognosy and reverse pharmacology take advantages of high technology methods to accomplish their particular purposes. Moreover, reverse pharmacognosy effectively utilize traditional medicines and natural products as promising sources to provide new drug leads as well as promote the rational use of them by using valuable information like protein structure databases and chemical libraries which prepare pharmacological profile of traditional medicine, plant extract or natural compounds.

[Approach to Teaching Kampo Medicine at Kyoto Pharmaceutical University].

An approach to educating our pharmaceutical students about Kampo medicine in the six-year system of undergraduate pharmacy education at Kyoto Pharmaceutical University is introduced, including the author's opinions. Curriculum revisions have been made in our university for students entering after 2012. In teaching Kampo medicine at present, a medical doctor and an on-site pharmacist share information difficult to give in a lecture with the teaching staff in my laboratory. For example, before the curriculum revision, we conferred with a pharmacist and a doctor in the course "Kampo Medicine A, B" for 4th year students, in which students were presented a basic knowledge of Kampo medicine, the application of important Kampo medicines, combinations of crude drugs, etc. Further, in our "Introduction to Kampo Medicine" for 6th year students, presented after they have practiced in hospitals and community pharmacies, we again lecture on the pharmacological characteristics of Kampo medicines, on "pattern (Sho)", and on evidence-based medicine (EBM) and research studies of important Kampo medicines. After our curriculum revision, "Kampo Medicine A, B" was rearranged into the courses "Kampo and Pharmacognosy" and "Clinical Kampo Medicine". "Kampo and Pharmacognosy" is now provided in the second semester of the 3rd year, and in this course we lecture on the basic knowledge of Kampo medicine. An advanced lecture will be given on "Clinical Kampo Medicine" in the 6th year. We are searching for the best way to interest students in Kampo medicine, and to counteract any misunderstandings about Kampo medicine.

[International research trends of pharmacognosy on molecular level --based on analysis of SCI literature].

The techniques and methods of molecular biology have been widely applied in pharmacognosy fields. International development trends of pharmacognosy studies on molecular level were analyzed by bibliometric methods using the SCIE database on Web of Science, the literature distribution, national distribution, agency distribution, periodicals distribution, and hot research topics were described using multivariate statistical analysis and multidimensional scaling analysis method,etc. The number of international pharmacognosy literature on molecular level is increasing year by year. USA, China and Japan have close cooperation, and focus on molecular identification and genetic diversity. Chinese scientists issued high-impact factor journals papers and high citations amount in the international forefront. The international pharmacognosy research on molecular level has developed rapidly. Chinese research has a significant influence.The molecular mechanism of the formation of Dao-di Herbs may become the next hotspot.

[Analysis of hot spots and trend of molecular pharmacognosy research based on project supported by National Natural Science Foundation of 1995-2014].

This study collected 1995-2014 molecular pharmacognosy study, a total of 595 items, funded by Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC). TDA and Excel software were used to analyze the data of the projects about general situation, hot spots of research with rank analytic and correlation analytic methods. Supported by NSFC molecular pharmacognosy projects and funding a gradual increase in the number of, the proportion of funds for pharmaceutical research funding tends to be stable; mainly supported by molecular biology methods of genuine medicinal materials, secondary metabolism and Germplasm Resources Research; hot drugs including Radix Salviae Miltiorrhizae, Radix Rehmanniae, Cordyceps sinensis, hot contents including tanshinone biosynthesis, Rehmannia glutinosa continuous cropping obstacle.

The effect of the European traditional use directive on the register of herbal medicinal products in Spain / Efecto en España de la directiva Europea de uso tradicional sobre el registro de medicamentos a base de plantas

Background: Directive 2004/24/EC, which came into force in 2011, created new regulatory requirements for traditional herbal medicines (THM). This study compared the Spanish THM registry before and after the Directive came fully into force in 2011. Methods: We consulted the herbal medicinal plant and drug catalogues (General Council of the Official Colleges of Pharmacists), the website of the European Medicines Agency (EMA), and retail web sites. Results: Of 315 THM (from 39 companies) licensed in Spain in 2010, only 48 (10 companies) remained licensed in 2013, mainly due to their withdrawal: the EMA had received just 123 applications from Spain and at least 34% formerly licensed THM had shifted to the less strictly regulated food sector, while up to 54% might have disappeared from the market. However, there is still a significant presence of retail websites making illegal health claims. Conclusion: In Spain, the public health benefits of the Directive 2004/24/EC might be less than expected (AU)

Antecedentes: En 2011 entró totalmente en vigor la Directiva 2004/24/CE, que impone nuevos requerimientos a los medicamentos tradicionales a base de plantas. Este trabajo analiza el efecto sobre su registro en España. Métodos: Se consultaron los catálogos de plantas medicinales y de medicamentos (CGCOF), la página web de la Agencia Europea del Medicamento (EMA) y sitios de venta en Internet. Resultados: De los 315 medicamentos a base de plantas autorizados en 2010, procedentes de 39 compañías; solo quedaban 48 (10 compañías) en 2013 por renuncia de la mayoría: sólo 123 solicitudes fueron recibidas a la EMA y al menos un 34% se pasó al sector de alimentación (menos estrictamente regulado). Hasta un 54% podría no comercializarse actualmente. Sin embargo, existe una presencia significativa de sitios web anunciando ilegalmente propiedades saludables para sus productos. Conclusión: Los beneficios de la Directiva 2004/24/CE para la salud pública española podrían ser menos de los esperados (AU)

[Analysis and outlook on teaching status of Molecular Pharmacognosy].

The teaching status of Molecular Pharmacognosy in 28 institutions in China was investigated by questionnaire and the survey data was analyzed by SPSS. Research contents included course beginning years, majors, class hours, characteristics of the course, teaching ways, the theory and practice contents, evaluation modes, selection of teaching material, teaching achievements, teachers and so on for undergraduates and graduates. Research results showed that with 20 years' development, Molecular Pharmacognosy had been offered for both undergraduate and graduate students in at least 20 colleges and universities and Molecular Pharmacognosy education in China showed good development momentum. At the same time, to promote the development of Molecular Pharmacognosy further, investment for it should be increased and practical teaching condition should be improved.

Interacciones entre preparados vegetales y fármacos de síntesis: revisión de las monografías de la EMA y ESCOP / Interacções entre preparações à base de plantas e fármacos de síntese: uma revisão das monografias da ema e eScoP / A tamareira e a palmeira das ilhas canárias na medicina tradicional de espanha / Interactions between herbal preparations and synthetic drugs: a review of the monographs of the EMA and ESCOP

El uso racional de la Fitoterapia se asienta en los requisitos de calidad, seguridad y eficacia. Uno de los aspectos que más preocupan al profesional de la salud es conocer las posibles interacciones entre los preparados a base de plantas medicinales y los fármacos de síntesis, especialmente los que tienen un margen terapéutico más estrecho, como los anticoagulantes y los inmunosupresores. Aunque existen multitud de publicaciones sobre el tema, los resultados que ofrecen son a menudo contradictorios y no siempre están basados en evidencias clínicas. En este trabajo mostramos las interacciones descritas en las monografías de referencia en la actualidad: las de la EMA (Agencia Europea del Medicamento) y de ESCOP (European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy), que ofrecen datos relevantes desde el punto de vista clínico, tanto en lo que respecta a indicaciones como a precauciones. Su análisis nos muestra que el número de drogas vegetales que interaccionan con medicamentos es relativamente bajo (menos del 25%) y que las interacciones más frecuentes son con anticoagulantes, corticoides, cardiotónicos, antiarrítmicos, benzodiazepinas, antidepresivos y antivirales. Las drogas y preparados vegetales que muestran un nivel significativo de interacciones son la sumidad de hipérico, los laxantes hidroxiantracénicos, las drogas con mucílagos, la raíz de regaliz, las drogas con taninos, el bulbo de ajo, la hoja de ginkgo y la raíz de ginseng (AU)

The rational Phytotherapy is based on the requirements of quality, safety and efficacy. A major concern of the health care professional is the potential interactions between the herbal preparations and synthetic drugs, especially those with a narrow therapeutic margin, such as anticoagulants and immunosuppressants. Although there are many publications on the subject, the results they provide are often contradictory and they are not always based on clinical evidence. The present paper presents the interactions described in the today’s monographs of reference: those of EMA (European Medicines Agency) and ESCOP (European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy), which provide clinically relevant information both regarding indications and precautions. Their analysis shows that the number of herbal drugs that interact with synthetic drugs is relatively low (below 25%) and that the most frequent interactions are with anticoagulants, corticosteroids, cardiac glycosides, antiarrhythmics, benzodiazepines, antidepressants and antivirals. Herbal drugs and preparations that show a significant level of interactions are: Saint John’s wort, hydroxyanthracene laxatives, mucilage containing preparations, licorice preparations, tannin containing herbal drugs, garlic, ginkgo leaf and ginseng root (AU)

O uso racional da Fitoterapia baseia-se nos requisitos de qualidade, segurança e eficácia. Um dos aspectos que mais preocupam os profissionais de saúde é conhecer as possíveis interacções entre os produtos à base de plantas medicinais e os fármacos de síntese, especialmente aqueles com uma margem terapêutica estreita, tais como os anticoagulantes e os imunossupressores. Embora existam muitas publicações sobre o assunto, os resultados que fornecem são muitas vezes contraditórios e nem sempre são baseados em evidências clínicas. Este trabalho apresenta as interacções descritas nas monografias actualmente reconhecidas como sendo monografias de refe-rência: as da EMA (Agência Europeia do Medicamento) e da ESCOP (European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy), que disponibilizam informações relevantes do ponto de vista clínico, tanto relativamente a indicações terapêuticas como a precauções de utilização. A análise mostra que o número de fármacos vegetais que interagem com medicamentos é relativamente baixo (inferior a 25%) e que as interacções mais frequentes são com anticoagulantes, corticosteroides, cardiotónicos, antiarrítmicos, benzodiazepinas, antidepres-sivos e antivíricos. Os fármacos e preparações de origem vegetal que apresentam um nível significativo de interacções são as sumidades floridas de hipericão, os laxantes hidroxiantracénicos, os fármacos com mucilagens, as preparações de alcaçuz, os fármacos com taninos, o bolbo de alho, a folha de ginkgo e a raiz de ginseng

Estudo botânico, fitoquímico e fisico-químico de Euphorbia hirta L. (Euphorbiaceae) / Botanical, phytochemical and physicochemical study of Euphorbia hirta L. (Euphorbiaceae)

Euphorbia hirta L., popularmente conhecida por erva andorinha, tem sido utilizada no tratamento de distúrbios respiratórios e como antiespasmódico. Esse trabalho foi realizado com a finalidade de determinar as características macroscópicas e microscópicas das folhas, caule e raiz dessa planta, uma vez que estas são as partes usadas popularmente. Algumas características de valor na sua diagnose foram apontadas e ilustradas por fotomicrografias. Reações de fitoquímica e a determinação do conteúdo de água e de cinzas foram realizadas no pó obtido da planta inteira, parte essa utilizada na fitoterapia Ayuverda. Na prospecção fitoquímica foram encontrados flavonóides, mucilagem, resinas e cumarinas. Na determinação do teor de água, de cinzas totais e de cinzas insolúveis em ácido, os valores encontrados foram 8,99%, 9,35%, 0,75%, respectivamente. Com o desenvolvimento deste trabalho foi possível obter parâmetros para o controle de qualidade das folhas, caule e raízes de E. hirta.

The Euphorbia hirta L. has been used in the treatment of respiratory disorders and as an antispasmodic. This work was carried out to determine the macroscopic and microscopic characteristics of the leaves, stems and roots of this plant, as these parts are commonly used. Some features of value in their diagnosis were identified and illustrated by photomicrographs. Phytochemical reactions and determination of water and ash contents were carried out in the powder obtained from the whole plant, the part used in Ayurveda phytomedicine. In phytochemical screening, we found flavonoids, mucilage, resins and coumarins. The values of water content, total ashes and acid insoluble ashes were 8.99%, 9.35%, 0.75%, respectively. The data obtained are important for the quality control of the leaves, stems and roots of E. hirta.

[Traditional use: phytopharmaceuticals seen from a historical perspective]. / Traditionelle Anwendung: Eine Betrachtung zu pflanzlichen Arzneimitteln aus pharmaziehistorischer Sicht.

In phytopharmacy, the term 'traditional use' is widely found in colloquial language but has also great significance for registration procedures of medicinal products. It is therefore justified to explore its actual meaning from the perspective of social and pharmaceutical history. It is shown that a tradition is founded by transmission of knowledge and techniques over at least three generations, while the life span of a generation may vary widely. Changes and adaptations to technical advancements do not at all avoid but even constitute the development of traditions. Historical research provides valuable knowledge about effectiveness and risk of phytopharmaceuticals. Criteria of traditional use may complement but not substitute modern evidence based methods; however they always need to be applied historically sound.

La colección de drogas vegetales del Museo de Historia de la Farmacia “Prof. José Mª Suñé Arbussᔠde Granada / Drug plant collection of The museum of History of Pharmacy

La colección de drogas vegetales está compuesta por una serie de 663 botes grandes de vidrio y conteniendo ambos drogas vegetales procedentes de la antigua Cátedra de Farmacognosia de la Facultad de Farmacia de Granada. Catalogado dentro de los fondos del Museo “Profesor José Mª Suñé Abrussà” como material docente de la propia Facultad de Farmacia, forma una colección interesante desde el punto de vista científico-farmacéutico y de alto valor estético. El objetivo del trabajo es dar a conocer esta importante colección, sistematizar el diverso contenido y proceder a su catalogación en el Museo(AU)

The collection of drug plants is composed of a series of 663 large glass jars containing both herbal drugs from the former Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Granada. Cataloged in the Museum's "Professor José Mª Suñé Abrussà" as teaching material it self Faculty of Pharmacy, is an interesting collection from the scientific point of view, high-value pharmaceutical estético. El paper aims to present this important collection, systematize the different contents and proceed to their classification in the Museum(AU)

[Research and educational activities through perspective of pharmacognosy].

The research field of pharmacognosy covers a wide variety of subjects based on a knowledge of natural medicines and extends its influence in all surrounding directions. Pharmacognosy itself is generally regarded as one of the branches of pharmaceutical science although the processes to achieve the objectives are not always analytical as are other branches in this field. The extraordinarily long history and broad view provide researchers opportunities to conduct unique projects which can enhance the perspective of the subject in the future. Fieldwork is one feature of scientific research and is viewed as more valuable to projects in pharmacognosy than to those in other fields of pharmaceutical sciences. The frame of my research has been formed around fieldwork; projects targeted are achieved based on information and samples gathered through this means, and further studies are suggested by the ideas obtained. Some of the results and experiences gathered in these projects are described in this article for discussion of the future image of the pharmacognosial field.

Actividades de Evaluación en Farmacognosia / Evaluation Activities in Pharmacognosy

La implantación del EEES comporta un nuevo sistema educativo enfocado al aprendizaje basado en el trabajo del estudiante, el cual deja de ser un sujeto pasivo que adquiere y memoriza conocimientos para convertirse en un sujeto activo de su desarrollo competencial y ser capaz de gestionar sus conocimientos eficientemente, bajo la tutela del profesor. Esto implica modificar no sólo la docencia sino también la evaluación, que como parte esencial del proceso educativo, asegura cubrir necesidades de aprendizaje y actualizar contenidos, proporciona retroalimentación, reflexión y análisis de la propia práctica y permite corregir deficiencias y mejorar metodologías.En Farmacognosia, actualmente en segundo curso de la Licenciatura de Farmacia, se han introducido estrategias de evaluación coherentes con los resultados de aprendizaje descritos, a considerar cuando se inicie el desarrollo de sus competencias en tercer curso de Grado. Inicialmente, se ha realizado una prueba de conocimientos previos. Se han aplicado dos tipos de pruebas, unas que enfatizan en la adquisición y comprensión de conocimientos y otras que abarcan competencias disciplinarias y transversales. Entre las primeras se han incluido: tests en aula virtual, que permiten discriminar información y dar una retroalimentación rápida; pruebas de respuesta abierta para comprobar capacidad de expresión, organización de ideas y razonamiento; y resolución de problemas para ver capacidad de gestionar información. Entre las segundas, después de realizar prácticas de laboratorio, se plantea una prueba de ejecución para una droga problema y se elabora un informe que demuestre el desarrollo de la ejecución, búsqueda y selección de información, observación e interpretación de resultados, y posterior exposición oral para valorar capacidad de comunicación(AU)

The implantation of the European Higher Education Area (EHEA) requires an educational system rooted in a competency-based learning approach in which, under professorial supervision, the students become active agents in order to reach a sufficient level of competence, retain more knowledge, and manage and apply this knowledge more efficiently. It implies modifying not only our teaching practices, but also our methods of evaluation, which, as an essential part of the education process, guarantees the acquisition of an ample range of skills and keeps course material up to date while providing students and educators with feed-back, reflection and analysis of the whole process. This, in turn, facilitates the correction of deficiencies and improvement of methodologies.In Pharmacognosy, which is currently taught in the second year of the Pharmacy program and in which ca. 200 students are enrolled, various evaluation strategies coherent with the established learning objectives were introduced to two groups of students. We first administered a questionnaire to ascertain the range of knowledge the students already had in related subjects. Then, two types of test were given: one type emphasizing the acquisition and understanding of knowledge and the other type focussing on more generic, interdisciplinary competence. The former type included: on-line multiple choice questionnaires, which allow for discernment of information and quick feed-back; open answertests to determine the students’ ability to reason, organize their thoughts and express their ideas; and the resolution of problems to see how the students handle information. The latter type of exercise was given to pairs of students who, upon completing the laboratory component of the class, were given a proposal for solving a problem relating to a crude drug(AU)

The students then had to draft a scientific paper-like document describing the experimental protocol along with their observations, analysis of the results, and how they searched for and selected information. Finally, the students gave an oral presentation of the protocol and their findings, thus allowing the professor to evaluate their oral communication skills(AU)

Molecular pharmacognosy: a new borderline discipline.

Pharmacognosy has developed rapidly in recent years and now represents a highly interdisciplinary science. At the boundary between pharmacognosy and molecular biology, molecular pharmacognosy has developed as a new borderline discipline. Using the method and technology of molecular biology, molecular pharmacognosy focuses on resolving a wide range of challenging problems, such as distinguishing herbal and animal drug populations by molecular marker assay, conserving and utilizing wild resources on the basis of knowledge of genetic diversity, investigating the mechanism of active compound accumulation and obtaining new resources with higher quality through genetic engineering. Recent research results show that molecular pharmacognosy has extended the scope of pharmacognostical science and plays an important role in the safe and efficient usage of crude drugs.

[Carbohydrate study for 40 years].

This review describes the carbohydrate study and the natural product related to the glycoside chemistry. What shall the people in the field of pharmacognosy and natural products chemistry search in scene in future? Forty years before while isolating dimeric compound having naphthoquinonepyrone skeleton from the coloring material produced by the pathogen that hosted in wheat and caused rotten root disease, silica gel has to be treated with oxalic acid to reduce the absorbency before separation. However now a days, availability of reversed phase adsorbents for liquid chromatography has made the separation and isolation of complex compounds possible, easy and rapid. With the advancement of mechanical/physicochemical analytic methods, it has even been possible to isolate traces of compounds present in complex. This advancement has made it possible to determine structure of saponins and complex polysaccharides without decomposition and carry out in vitro bioassay at the same time using various cells on-line. Further, this review describes the oligosaccharide syntheses and biological activities of glycosphingolipids, focusing especially on those found in invertebrates.